Historical Background
Kashmir's history is a mosaic of diverse influences and pivotal events that have shaped its unique identity. Nestled in the heart of the Himalayas, this region has been a crossroads of civilizations, cultures, and geopolitical interests. From its early days under Hindu and Buddhist rule to the complex dynamics of the Mughal era and the subsequent shifts during British colonialism, Kashmir's past is as intricate as it is impactful. The post-independence period marked a new chapter, fraught with contention and strategic maneuvering, deeply influencing the region's contemporary narrative. This historical overview serves as a gateway to understanding the nuanced and often turbulent journey of Kashmir through the ages.
While Kashmir was first considered an ‘international dispute’ only in 1947, it must be recognized that Kashmir has its own distinct cultural and political identity separate from that of the dialogue surrounding territorial conflict between South-East Asian regions. This timeline was constructed with this in mind, recognizing the events that have shaped Kashmir’s complex political subjectivity in the last century.
Pre-Independence
1586 - Akbar's conquest of Kashmir in 1586 ended native rule under Yusuf Shah Chak and followed a history of diverse religious and cultural influences, including Buddhist and Hindu periods, leading to Kashmir's integration into his empire.
1750s-1846 - The decline of the Mughal Empire led to Durrani and then Sikh rule, with the latter's oppressive reign ending in reduced power after the Anglo-Sikh wars with the British East India Company in the 1840s.
1846 - The 1846 Treaty of Amritsar led to Gulab Singh's purchase of Kashmir and the start of the oppressive Dogra Dynasty, creating a Hindu kingdom over a Muslim majority and resulting in widespread hardship and the rise of Muslim political factions.
1914 - McMahon Line established, set by British India with Tibet and China
1940s - Kashmir saw the National Conference advocating for democracy and the Muslim Conference growing in Jammu.
1947 - Following the Indian subcontinent's partition, Kashmir faced divided loyalties and violence, leading its Hindu ruler under pressure to accede to India after a Pashtun invasion, thereby triggering the first Indo-Pakistan War over the region.
Post-Independence
1950-1957
India negated its plebiscite promise in Kashmir, granting it special status with Article 370, and faced political upheaval leading to Sheikh Abdullah's arrest in 1953.
Meanwhile, China occupied the strategic Aksai Chin region in the 1950s, with India's formal protest coming in 1958.
1959
Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's questioning of Chinese maps led to Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai's firm rejection of the colonial-era McMahon Line as the frontier, intensifying long-standing tensions.
1962
Sino-Indian War began, centered around the extended dispute over the Aksai Chin Region.
1963
China-Pakistan agreement ceding the Shaksgam valley to China and laying the foundation for the strategic Karakoram Highway.
1965
Second Indo-Pakistan war breaks out.
1967
Nathu La clashes, sparked by India fencing its border and met with Chinese aggression, resulted in heavy casualties and an Indian victory, marking years of peace between India and China until the 2020 skirmishes.
1971-72
The 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, with India aiding rebels, led to East Pakistan's accession to India and the creation of Bangladesh, followed by the 1972 Simla Agreement which established the Line of Control in Kashmir and heightened militarization in the region.
1974-83
Sheikh Abdullah returns to Kashmir, becoming Chief Minister and dropping self-determination demands, with his National Conference gaining strong support.
After his death in 1982, internal dissent grows in the NC, coinciding with a rise in Hindu nationalism against Kashmiri Muslims during PM Indira Gandhi's tenure.
1987
The Muslim United Front accused India of rigging the election in favor of a pro-India representative, sparking a mass uprising.
~1989
Armed forces in Kashmir significantly proliferate, including the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) who declared armed struggle against India.
1999
The Kargil War breaks out between India and Pakistan, drawing international concern to the nuclear dynamics in South Asia.
1990s
The insurgency in Kashmir intensifies, with the Indian army clashing against locals and militants, leading to human rights abuses and the exodus of Hindus, culminating in India enforcing the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA).
1993
India and China sign the Border Peace and Tranquility Agreement, acknowledging the Line of Actual Control and commit to reducing military forces.
Contemporary Developments
2001
The Agra Summit took place, which failed to achieve a breakthrough. It was followed by heightened Indian military presence on the Pakistan border due to a parliamentary attack.
2003
India and China sign the declaration of Principles for Relations and Comprehensive Cooperation, which made clear their commitment to peace and sovereignty.
2005
The Agreement on Political Parameters and Guiding Principles was established in 2005 to reinforce the notion that bilateral relations should not be affected by the border conflict, and to promote military confidence building measures.
2015
Following the alliance between the Hindu nationalist BJP and the People's Deocratic Party in Kashmir, 2015 marked the first time since 1947 that Hindu nationalists have come to power in Kashmir.
2019
India revoked Jammu and Kashmir’s special status and autonomy in Article 370 of the constitutin.
2020
2020 saw the first fatal confrontation between Indian and Chinese troops since 1975, as a result of India crossing the border at Galwan Valley twice, provoking Chinese personnel. This led to physical confrontation without firearms, with over 20 fatalities.
2020 -
present
Post-Galwan Clash, India, Pakistan, and China have engaged in diplomatic and military efforts with intermittent violence and attempts at de-escalation, marked by slow progress and border transgressions. Both China and India continue to build infrastructure along the Line of Actual Control.
In 2021, a disengagement agreement in the Pangong Lake area involved troop withdrawal and dismantling infrastructure.
December 2022 witnessed a significant clash between Indian and Chinese soldiers, the most violent since the Galwan incident, with no firearms used.
